Optimizing Container Drayage with Multi-Mode Hybrid Electric Trucks: Model, Experiments, and Insights

Articles in Press

Authors

1 Department of Industrial Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

2 دانشیار، دانشکده مهندسی صنایع، دانشگاه صنعتی خواجه نصیرالدین طوسی

10.22059/aie.2026.405098.1957

Abstract

Container drayage is a key component of maritime intermodal logistics, yet it is associated with high operational costs and considerable greenhouse gas emissions due to the extensive use of diesel trucks. This study develops an optimization framework for container drayage operations using hybrid electric trucks. We introduce the Hybrid Electric Container Drayage Problem (HECDP), which incorporates multiple propulsion modes, pure electric, internal combustion, charging, and boost, within a unified routing and scheduling model. A mixed‑integer linear programming formulation is proposed to jointly determine vehicle routes, pickup–delivery operations, propulsion‑mode selection, and battery state‑of‑charge dynamics while satisfying container loading and operational constraints. The model is first validated through a small numerical example and then applied to a real-world case study based on the Inland Container Terminal (ICT) Tilburg in the Netherlands. Computational experiments compare three fleet configurations: a conventional diesel fleet, a fully hybrid fleet, and a mixed fleet scenario. Results show that a fully hybrid fleet can reduce operational costs by about 30% and CO₂ emissions by nearly 60% compared with the diesel benchmark. Furthermore, even a partial transition to hybrid trucks (e.g., 30% fleet penetration) captures a substantial portion of these benefits. Sensitivity analyses examining battery capacity, travel speed, and terminal location indicate that operational conditions significantly influence system performance. Overall, the findings suggest that integrating propulsion characteristics of hybrid trucks into routing decisions can simultaneously improve operational efficiency and environmental performance in container drayage systems.

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Advances in Industrial Engineering

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 16 May 2026

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